Introduction to Genotype and Phenotype The field of genetics has seen remarkable advancements in recent decades, particularly regarding the intricate relationship between genotype and phenotype. These foundational concepts are crucial for elucidating the complex mechanisms underpinning the inheritance and expression of traits across all organisms. The term “genotype” denotes the genetic constitution of an organism ..read more

What Is CRISPR CRISPR, or Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats, is a revolutionary technology that harnesses the adaptive immune system of bacteria. Originally discovered in bacteria as a defense mechanism against viruses, CRISPR allows organisms to store segments of viral DNA, which can be transcribed into RNA to guide RNA-guided endonucleases (like Cas9) to ..read more

CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) technology has revolutionized the field of genetic engineering. This powerful tool allows for precise, targeted modifications of the genome, making it an essential component in modern biotechnology. The mechanism behind CRISPR involves the use of guide RNA (gRNA) and CRISPR-associated proteins (Cas), which together create site-specific double-strand breaks ..read more

Introduction T cell receptors (TCRs) are crucial components of the adaptive immune system, enabling T cells to recognize and respond to specific antigens. The TCR’s role is pivotal in immune surveillance and defense against pathogens. This article delves into the intricacies of TCR structure, function, signaling pathways, and testing methodologies, providing a comprehensive overview supported by ..read more

Introduction to T Cell Receptor Signaling T cell receptor (TCR) signaling is essential for the activation and function of T lymphocytes, which are key players in adaptive immunity. The TCR complex, consisting of the TCR α and β chains in conjunction with the CD3 and ζ (zeta) chains, specifically recognizes peptide-MHC (Major Histocompatibility Complex) complexes presented ..read more

RNA modifications, notably N6-methyladenosine (m6A) methylation, have risen to prominence as pivotal orchestrators of gene expression and cellular dynamics. Within this array of modifications, the m6A methylation of RNA, especially within messenger RNA (mRNA) transcripts, has garnered considerable interest due to its profound involvement in diverse biological phenomena and the onset of pathological conditions. In this exhaustive exposition, we undertake a thorough examination of the impact exerted by m6A modifications upon mRNA molecules, elucidating their ramifications for disease etiology ..read more

What Is 16S rRNA? The 16S rRNA (16S ribosomal RNA) is a constituent component of the 30S subunit in prokaryotic ribosomes. The “S” in 16S pertains to the Svedberg unit, a measure that reflects the sedimentation rate of large molecules in a centrifugal field – the higher the value, the larger the molecule. The 16S rRNA gene is the DNA sequence encoding for bacterial rRNA and is found in the genomes of all bacteria. Significantly, 16S rRNA is highly conserved and highly specific, with a gene sequence of sufficient length. Figure 1. 16S rRNA gene. (A) The involvement of 16S rRNA g ..read more

In the field of genomics, two notable methodologies for DNA sequencing have risen to prominence: Primer Walking Sequencing and Shotgun Sequencing. These techniques, although distinct in their approaches, stand as indispensable instruments for deciphering the intricacies inherent within the genetic code. This discourse endeavors to dissect the nuances of both methodologies, elucidating their fundamental principles, diverse applications, as well as their respective strengths and limitations. What is Primer Walking Sequencing Primer walking sequencing stands as a directed approach for deciphering ..read more

The vital roles played by small RNA molecules in gene regulation and a myriad of cellular processes are undeniably essential within the realms of biological sciences. This extensive review encompasses a deep exploration into the complex nature of small RNA. We examine its definition, the diversity of its types, its multifaceted functions, as well as its intricate regulation mechanisms. The review also discusses the state-of-the-art advances in small RNA sequencing technologies, reflecting the continuous evolution and growth of this critical field in biotechnology. Small RNA Definition Small RN ..read more

1992 Bisulfite Treatment for Methylation Samples Commonly referred to as BS conversion, it involves treating methylated samples with bisulfite (abbreviated as "BS"), where "conversion" refers to the process by which unmethylated cytosines (C) are converted to uracils (U) and eventually to thymines (T) through PCR amplification, while methylated cytosines (5mC) are preserved. 2003 Pyrosequencing Pyrosequencing is primarily used for validating methylation sites. Essentially, it combines bisulfite modification with PCR amplification to operate a pyrosequencing machine. Notably, BS pyrosequencing ..read more