A piece of Roman jewelry embedded with carbuncle, one of the key goods traded in Germa. Horses, carbuncles, gold, salt, and more. What do all these things have in common? They were first traded across the Sahara by the Garamantes. Today's episode discusses the earliest rise of Garamantian trans-Saharan trade, the first documented example of trade across the vast desert ..read more

  An image of a farm irritated by a qanat/fouggara Brought to the Sahara following the Persian conquest of Egypt, the spread of a new irrigation technology allowed Garamantian civilization to expand dramatically An archaeological map of Zinkekra The earliest evidence of a unique Garamantian culture comes from the settlement of Zinkekra, located at the top of a rocky plateau near the Wadi al Ajal. However, settlements gradually drifted further down the valley. The location at the bottom of these valleys allowed new Garamantian settlements to better take advantage of a t ..read more

  In this episode, we will examine some of the shortcomings of Harry Johnston's original Bantu expansion hypothesis, as well as which of its strengths have allowed it to persist in modern academic study of African history ..read more

  Map approximating the extent of Bantu languages. Source: Khan Academy Bantu is a term which has become one of the most contentious in the study of African history. The name of a language family stretching across much of the southern half of the African continent, the term has been used in many distinct ways. In anthropology, it has often extended beyond mere linguistics into an idea of a larger shared culture and history across southern and central Africa. In apartheid South Africa, "Bantu" was used as a euphemism for "black" in many of the country's most oppressive apartheid ..read more

  Malagasy Defenders Building a Barricade at Antananarivo (1897) In a betrayal of previous commitments to Madagascar, Britain revoked its recognition of Malagasy sovereignty in a deal with France, in exchange for French recognition of a British protectorate over Zanzibar. Soon after this deal, the French invaded Madagascar, landing troops in Mahajanga and Toamasina. The Malagasy army, utterly spent from their previous war with France and severely short on ammunition, was forced into conservative tactics, with the Merina soldiers setting up defensive fortifications and retr ..read more

  Map of gold deposits in 19th century Madagascar by Gwyn Campbell The French invasion and blockade of Madagascar in 1884, while it hadn't conquered the island nation, wrecked havoc on the Malagasy economy. With his country's economy in shambles, and with foreign investors being unwilling to take the risk of investing in Madagascar, Rainilaiarivony had to implement a desperate policy to excite investors and potentially reverse Madagascar's economic freefall: the opening of the country's long secret gold deposits for business ..read more

Ranavalona III was crowned empress of Madagascar in the midst of the first Franco-Hova War The First-Franco war is a largely forgotten conflict. It represented neither a triumphant victory in the face of colonial conquest, nor a brutal and consequential defeat. This inconclusive nature, along with the heavyhanded censorship of the press by the French military, as well as being overshadowed by the larger scale and more devastating French war against Qing China meant that few people outside of Madagascar itself took much interest in the conflict. Despite this, the war is still worth s ..read more

  The Palace of Rainilaiarivony Following their survival of the failed coup of 1868, Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony and Queen Ranavalona II set about implementing a new reformist agenda. Among these reforms included the creation of the country's first fully independent school, which educated Malagasy army officers on governmental administration. The school enabled the creation of a new bureaucratic class of officers, who replaced the old system of provincial government. The Royal Chapel at the Rova of Antananarivo Meanwhile, queen Ranavalona II radically transformed th ..read more

Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony In the aftermath of the controversial coup against Radama II, the new head of state, prime minister Rainivoninahitriniony, was in a tumultuous position. He and the fellow orchestrators of the coup had committed the unprecedented act of overthrowing the mpanjaka Imerina. He attempted to legitimize the bureaucratic takeover by marrying one of Radama's wives, Rasoherina, as well as drafting a new constitution for Imerina. While the constitution would last, Rainivoninahitriniony did not, and he was himself overthrown by his brother in 1864. This brother was ..read more

Radama II's coronation by a Catholic Priest Radama II had a short reign over Madagascar, and his legacy is heavily debated. Charitable accounts of his reign paint him as a forward-thinking and humanitarian reformer, the "Renaissance Prince of Madagascar." However, more critical accounts highlight his capitulation to foreign interests and unwillingness to adhere to Merina norms of power sharing, leading to a dysfunctional government. Radama II and his wife, Radobo As a man essentially raised by a European father figure, Radama II was destined to hold some degree of sympath ..read more