In the early 1900’s, N. L. Bowen and others at the Geophysical Laboratories in Washington D.C. began experimental studies into the order of crystallization of the common silicate minerals from a magma. The idealized progression which they determined is still accepted as the general model for the evolution of magmas during the cooling process. The Principles that Bowen realized are as follows: A) As a melt cools minerals crystallize that are in thermodynamic equilibrium with the melt (dissolution equals crystallization; if no equilibrium either crystallization will dominate [supersaturation], o ..read more

Characterizing Color and Texture If you wander around a city admiring building facades, you’ll find that many facades consist of igneous rock, for such rocks tend to be very durable. If you had to describe one of these rocks to a friend, what words might you use? You would  probably start by noting the rock’s colour. Overall, is the rock dark or light? More specifically, is it gray, pink, white, or black? Describing colour may not be easy, because some igneous rocks contain many visible mineral grains, each with a different colour; but even so, you’ll probably be able to characterize t ..read more

Gabbro is a coarse-grained, dark-colored, intrusive igneous rock. It is usually black or dark green in color and composed mainly of the minerals plagioclase and augite. It is the most abundant rock in the deep oceanic crust. Gabbro has a variety of uses in the construction industry. It is used for everything from crushed stone base materials at construction sites to polished stone counter tops and floor tiles. Igneous rock composition chart: A chart that illustrates the generalized mineral composition of igneous rocks. By studying this chart, you can see that gabbros and basalts are composed ..read more

Radiometric Correction As any image involves radiometric errors as well as geometric errors, these errors should be corrected. Radiometric correction is to avoid radiometric errors or distortions, while geometric correction is to remove geometric distortion. When the emitted or reflected electro-magnetic energy is observed by a sensor on board an aircraft or spacecraft, the observed energy does not coincide with the energy emitted or reflected from the same object observed from a short distance. This is due to the sun’s azimuth and elevation, atmospheric conditions such as fog or aer ..read more

Basalt is a dark-colored, fine-grained, igneous rock composed mainly of plagioclase and pyroxene minerals. It most commonly forms as an extrusive rock, such as a lava flow, but can also form in small intrusive bodies, such as an igneous dike or a thin sill. It has a composition similar to gabbro. The difference between basalt and gabbro is that basalt is a fine-grained rock while gabbro is a coarse-grained rock. Basalt underlies more of Earth’s surface than any other rock type. Most areas within Earth’s ocean basins are underlain by basalt. Although basalt is much less common on continents, la ..read more

“Geology” is a Greek word “geo” means earth and “logos” means science. Geology is the scientific study of the Earth, the materials (which it is made), the structure of those materials, and the process following upon them. The importance of geology is the investigation of how Earth’s materials, structures, process, and life forms have changed over time. It is the study of nature, structure, and history of the planet. Geology is a major part of our planet and meteorological sciences. The subject of geology comprises all perspectives including the composition, structure, physical proper ..read more

The 120-km-long Kalabagh fault zone is formed by transpressive right-lateral strike-slip along the western Salt Range-Potwar Plateau in northern Pakistan. kalabagh fault between mianwali and kalabagh. it truncates at the western margin of salt range thrust Jhelum fault and kalabagh fault are the geological boundaries of salt rang we see continuity of salt range  along the kalabagh fault and this is known as trans Indus range. while the area lying to the east of the kalabagh fault is the Cis salt Indus range Kalabagh fault is an active dextral wrench fault with a 16-19 km of strike-slip m ..read more

Introduction Geology is the scientific study of the all constituents of planets, their internal and external forms and processes. More precisely, it is the study of nature, structure and history of the planet. Earth is the home to all life, well known to the humankind. Geology, itself, is a major part of The Earth and atmospheric sciences, which were born as twins . The subject of geology encompasses all aspects including the composition, structure, physical properties, and history of a planets'( like Earth’s) inter-related components and the processes that are shaping the features on the sur ..read more

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A rock is a substance which occurs naturally, and composed of grains of minerals and mineraloid matter. Grains of minerals are crystalline solids  which form chemical compounds  arranged in an orderly manner. Rock is categorized by chemical composition and how it’s formed. Most rocks contain silicate minerals, and account for about one-third of all known mineral species and about 95% of the earth’s crust. Rocks form the earth’s outer crust, and earth’s outer solid layer. The proportion of silica in rocks and minerals is a major factor in determining their names and properties. Rocks ..read more