Abstract (TL;DR) Molecular orbital diagrams are a fantastic way of visualizing how molecular orbitals form using what we already understand about sigma and pi bonds. Depending on if it is a homonuclear case, where the bonding atoms are the same, or a heteronuclear case, where the bonding atoms are different, these molecular orbital diagrams will look incredibly different. Regardless, consideration of the symmetry between atoms, how the orbitals mix and the electronegativities of all atoms are necessary in drawing molecular orbital diagrams. This lesson walks through those considerations ..read more

Abstract (TL;DR) The method for explaining bonding that we’ve gotten accustomed to only scratches the surface. When we factor in electron’s wave-like behavior, we see that bonding goes further than simply lone pairs and electrons between nuclei. A new bonding theory - molecular orbital theory - provides an explanation for how electron waves influence covalent bonding. ——— A waveform (middle) constructively and destructively interfering with a stationary waveform (top). Image by Tamara Smyth, Department of Music, University of California, San Diego (UCSD) So far, we’ve stuck to the idea of “lo ..read more

Abstract (TL;DR): This marks the end of the Dance of Chemistry arc. In this piece, we discuss properties held by the elements. Elements are divided between three characteristics: metals, non-metals and metalloids. Metals are malleable and are great conductors of heat and electricity. Non-metals are brittle and are bad conductors of heat and electricity. Metalloids are either brittle or malleable and can be good conductors of heat and electricity or not. Lastly, the characteristics of elements can determine the kinds of bonds they form. — Image via Tsinghua University Press and University of S ..read more

Abstract (TL;DR) The scientific community’s center, academia, has been slowly devastated by a shift in funding priorities by the federal government. The culture - how researchers work, what they work on and how they mentor the youngest and most curious minds - has changed in response. Here, I outline my own experience in research, explaining how I was caught in this shifting environment and relating those experiences to the conditions within academia. To set the tone for the year, I’d like to outline experiences of mine within the scientific community that might enlighten as to both how I’ve ..read more

My Science-Curious Friends and Readers, Welcome to the new Flux Science. A few of you might have been by as the site was being designed to see behind the scenes, but I am happy to show you the new design. We are finally in a new year, leaving one filled with an unfortunate amount of tragedy behind us. 2020 disrupted the lives of many, with policies and communication, or lack there of, being responsible for much of that disruption. My approach, as it’s always been, is to counteract miscommunication and obstruction of information through easy access to scientific information. My belief, as it’s ..read more

Abstract (TL;DR) Pandemics are marked by the prevalence of a disease across a large population, including a global population. In fighting diseases, our greatest tool of offense is science and our greatest tool of defense is science communication. Yet the leadership of the United States has expressed open disagreement with our nation’s scientists and continued to push solutions that do not have the backing of science. What are the ramifications of this behavior on our society? As unprecedented challenges to societies come, history often reveals two outcomes: the uniting of a people to overcom ..read more

Abstract (TL;DR) Hybridization, or the overlapping of orbitals to form new, hybrid orbitals, is a valuable missing piece to the understanding of covalent bonding. These hybrid orbitals are what allow atoms to form the maximum amount of covalent bonds - something that our current, limited understanding of valence electrons doesn’t provide. — sp3 orbital Image by Cdang via Wikimedia Scientists established the exact angles and geometries between atoms through observation and experimentation. But, as always, where there is a will to explore something to its concrete conclusion, there is always an ..read more

Abstract (TL;DR) Hybridization, beyond giving us a reason for covalent bonding, also helps us understand that there are two different types of covalent bonds - the sigma and the pi bond. Sigma bonds are those caused by a direct overlapping of atomic orbitals in between atomic nuclei while pi bonds are those caused by the overlapping of atomic orbitals away from atomic nuclei. We reveal in this section that sigma bonds exist within every covalent bond, while pi bonds only occur in double or triple bonds. Further, with an understanding of sigma and pi bonds, we can hybridize an atom at a glance ..read more

Abstract (TL;DR) Hybridization, or the overlapping of orbitals to form new, hybrid orbitals, is a valuable missing piece to the understanding of covalent bonding. These hybrid orbitals are what allow atoms to form the maximum amount of covalent bonds - something that our current, limited understanding of valence electrons doesn’t provide. — sp3 orbital Image by Cdang via Wikimedia Scientists established the exact angles and geometries between atoms through observation and experimentation. But, as always, where there is a will to explore something to its concrete conclusion, there is always an ..read more

Abstract (TL;DR): According to the electron configuration of an atom, the shapes that molecules take can be completely different. —— Hydrogen bonds can slightly change a molecules bond angles. Image via video by the Canadian Museum of Nature With the naming of the molecules in the books, I promise you that you’ll never have to go through a similar gauntlet again (really, chemistry is the only discipline with this level of variation - kudos to all chemists for your mastery of the subject). Molecules can get fairly hairy the larger they get. And we’ll see a few examples when we end up talking ..read more